Aristotle and Materials Science

Aristotle thinks of material (matter, stuff) as potentiality to become a certain kind of thing. A particular sort of entity is produced when it takes on a specific form. When this happens, the potentiality of the material to be that kind of thing is actualized. Different kinds of material can be characterized in terms of the range of types of things they can become. Wood can be made into a chair, but water (in its liquid form) cannot be. These days, materials science studies how the properties of different kinds of stuff suit it for various states, forms, and purposes.

The Rewards of Hard Books

A traditional liberal arts education involves reading classic texts. For various reasons, students often find these books difficult to read. These works can be challenging because of their language, their ideas, and their length. But readers who expend the effort to engage with these volumes can be rewarded, not only with their rich contents, but also with the character trait of perseverance. Many treasures in life can be enjoyed only after prolonged and patient attention. A slow-moving film may prove itself to be deeply meaningful; a time of mundane routine or extended suffering may be pregnant with value and significance.

The Socratic Method & the Bible

Socrates cross-examined his contemporaries who claimed to be wise. He used the “Socratic Method” of critical questioning to show that these “authorities” were not nearly as wise as they thought they were. Socrates applied his disposition to question authority to books as well. For him, books were not repositories of truth to be digested but instead records of thinking to be critically engaged. But what about the Bible? If that book is God’s authoritative Word, then it does contain important truths we ought to believe. Still, Socrates was partially right even here. We need to question our interpretations of scripture.

Tuning In to God

In The Jesus Prayer, Frederica Mathewes-Green likens our ability to perceive God to a “little radio” inside us that we can tune in to the divine presence while tuning out the static of distractions. She uses the Greek word ‘nous’ to name this receptive and perceptive faculty. That’s the theory. The practical question is how we can learn to adjust the tuner to find the right frequency and how we can attend to the divine signal once we have located it. She recommends a regular rehearsal of the Jesus prayer for this purpose: “Jesus have mercy on me, a sinner.”

No End to the Reading of Books

My formal education started at Phantom Lake Elementary in Bellevue, Washington. Sometime early in my seven years there, I decided I would read all the books in the library, starting with the very first book on the shelf and working my way one by one from there in Dewey Decimal order. That scheme, like many similar ones in years to come, was short-lived; the initial book lacked sufficient luster to hold my interest, and the project went by the wayside. But my aspiration to be an academic generalist was born that day nonetheless, and I still want to know everything.

A Functional Definition of "Good Soil"

In the parable of the sower, Jesus mentions four different kinds of circumstances in which an individual hears the word of God. The best condition involves “good soil,” which provides the resources necessary to prevent external factors from interfering with the spiritual growth made possible by God’s word. Though Jesus does not say what this good soil is, the parable’s context enables us to discern its function: It enables disciples to benefit from the word without being hindered by the world, the flesh, or the devil (which seem to be what Jesus has in mind in the other three cases).

Intellectual Exploration and Discovery

In “The Idea of a University,” Michael Oakeshott likens the “interval” a student experiences between school and post-graduate life to a “boundless sea” rather than to a “road.” He says it is a time when one can be free from the pressure to make up one’s mind and free to experience mystery without looking for an explanation. I agree that such an unhindered intellectual adventure ought to be an important part of every student’s liberal education. But a Christian liberal arts education requires that one also chart a course toward Jesus, who is the way, the truth, and the life.

Friendly Fighting in Marriage

After years of research based on observing married couples in his “Love Lab,” University of Washington professor of psychology John M. Gottman claims to be able to predict with 91% accuracy whether a couple will divorce. He has also discovered that the marriages most likely to succeed are based on a deep friendship characterized by mutual respect and enjoyment of each other’s company. Gottman says friendship minimizes adversarial feelings and enables couples to quarrel without destructive results. He says since “most marital arguments cannot be resolved,” married couples should work to deepen their friendship rather than to win their arguments.

Ancient Art & Aristotle's Four Causes

I visited the Getty Villa in Malibu recently. While there, I heard a docent talk about a piece in their collection: a Greek storage jar featuring a painting of “The Judgment of Paris” from 360 B.C. The guide’s explanation touched on each of Aristotle’s four causes: what it is (a storage jar with paintings of mythical scenes), what it is made of (terracotta, pigment, and gold), how it was made (probably progressively in an Athenian workshop by artisans with different skills), and why it was made (as an export to Kersh on the Black Sea coast of today’s southern Russia).

Abnormal Psychology & Human Perfection

What is the meaning of ‘abnormal’ in “Abnormal Psychology”? Should we understand it descriptively or normatively? That is, is an abnormal person or behavior merely a person or behavior that is statistically infrequent relative to a particular population or instead a person or behavior that deviates in some way from some ideal standard or other? If the former, then it is hard to see why abnormal psychology should be of interest to clinical psychologists; therapy implies a need for healing. If the latter, then psychologists will need to engage in evaluative judgments based on a specific conception of human perfection.

Capitalism Then & Now

In The Worldly Philosophy, Robert Heilbroner traces the history of the discipline of economics. He looks to Adam Smith as its founder, since Smith was the first to attempt a thorough and comprehensive description and explanation of capitalism. Before Smith’s time, there had not been a free market. Instead, the material needs and wants of societies had been fulfilled (or left unmet) by systems governed by tradition or government edict. Since Smith, other theorists, such as Malthus, Ricardo, Mill, Marx, Hobson, Veblen, and Keynes came along to make economic observations, prognostications, and prescriptions. What is the state of capitalism today?

Understanding Human Beings

Aristotle defined human beings as rational animals. We are animals insofar as we are embodied. And our embodiment in biological organisms makes us suitable objects of study by the natural sciences of physics, chemistry, and biology. But we are also rational, and, given a Christian perspective, spiritual animals. Can the natural sciences provide a complete explanation of our rationality and spirituality? If we are rational and spiritual in virtue of having or being immaterial souls, then the answer is “no.” If substance dualism is true, our full understanding of ourselves will have to be based on additional, non-natural human sciences.

Christians, Politics, & Faithfulness

In To Change the World, James Davison Hunter argues that in general, Christians are using politics as their primary tool to further the purposes of Christianity in the world. He thinks this is true of the Christian Right, who want to save the U.S. from secularism and liberalism, the Christian Left, who oppose the Christian Right and side with the poor and the oppressed, and the Neo-Anabaptists, who reject the government but do so for political reasons. Hunter urges against all three that a faithful public Christian witness need not employ political means or achieve political ends to be biblical.

Why Science Needs Philosophy & Theology

Scientists can tell us what the facts are but we need philosophers and theologians to help us figure out what the facts mean and how to evaluate them. For instance, psychologists can determine how much satisfaction people derive from an activity. However, we need to think philosophically about why people enjoy that pastime and that will require that we find out what it means to them. We will also need to discern whether the involvement in question is genuinely worthwhile. And that will require us to ask if engaging in it contributes to the purpose for which God created us.

When Negative Emotions are Good

Fear, sorrow, and anxiety are negative emotions but they aren’t necessarily bad emotions. Fear is bad when it prevents us from doing what we ought to do. Sorrow is bad when it is due to our losing something we value more than we should. And anxiety is bad when it is a result of our not trusting God enough for our wellbeing. But it is good to fear God, to be sorry when we disobey Him, and to be anxious about losing our soul in the midst of our struggles with temptation. Blessed is the one who fears the Lord.

Can Theology Still be the Queen?

In “The Idea of a University,” Newman argues that since universities profess to teach universal knowledge and theology is a branch of knowledge, universities should teach theology as knowledge. Unsurprisingly, those responsible for the curricula of secular universities today deny the conclusion of this syllogism (and so also reject at least one of its premises). What is surprising is that though Christian colleges and universities should be able to affirm both the premises and conclusion of Newman's argument, many of them do not teach theology as a source of knowledge, but rather as a basis for mere faith or belief.

The Book of Mormon

I’m almost done reading the Book of Mormon. Is it “another testament of Jesus Christ”? I don’t think so. I’ve been listing reasons for my doubts: though it was allegedly composed by different people over hundreds of years, it has the same voice and style throughout; though most of the documents were purportedly written before Christ, they reflect the enlightenment ideals of democracy, liberty, and individual rights; though the gospel of Christ is hidden in the Old Testament, it is explicit in the Book of Mormon; and though it makes historical claims, there is no independent evidence they are true.

Defending the Atonement

Critics say Jesus’ death was unnecessary, unjust, and ineffective. They argue that God could have merely forgiven us, that wrongdoers must undergo the punishment they deserve, and that one person’s death can’t save another person from sin. But whenever there is an injury, someone has to suffer – the victim, the perpetrator, or another person. And though justice requires that someone pay the penalty, it doesn’t have to be the sinner. And when Jesus took on the suffering of sinners, he made possible a restoration of loving relationships. So the Atonement of Christ met the demands of love, justice, and peace. 

The Qur'an and God's Love

I read the Qur’an last year. I learned about the Muslim idea of God. God is great. God is merciful. Is God loving? Yes, but God’s love is conditional. God loves those who do good, who are pure and clean, who are righteous. But there is no indication that God loves unrepentant sinners. In contrast, Paul writes that, “God’s love has been poured out into our hearts through the Holy Spirit” and that, “Christ died for the ungodly.” He says, “God demonstrates his own love for us in this: While we were still sinners, Christ died for us” (Rom. 5:5-8).

Disciplines and Perfection

I’ve been thinking about the academic disciplines lately. The dictionary says the noun “discipline” concerns either a means (training, instruction) or an end (behavior, knowledge). I am convinced that personal perfection, whether intellectual, physical, moral, social, or spiritual, requires controlled habitual efforts to learn, improve, and mature. I also agree with William Law that following rules can facilitate these practices. Dallas Willard says we are formed by our choices and experiences – spiritually and otherwise – for good or for ill. In the Sermon on the Mount Jesus gave us rules to help us “be perfect as our Heavenly Father is perfect.”

Eternal Truth

Some time ago I had a conversation with an historian about whether there is such a thing as eternal truth. I said yes, and he said no. I think our disciplines influenced our answers. Historians focus on the changing circumstances of life and philosophers think about the fixed verities of existence. The former consider what has taken place in time and the latter reflect on what has existed forever. Since we are both Christians, we each have reason to affirm temporal and eternal truths. It is eternally true that God exists; it is temporally the case that God became human.

When Our Earthly Tent is Destroyed

Our house burned down in the Santa Barbara Tea Fire in November 2008. We lost everything except the clothes we were wearing, our laptops, some important papers, and one of our cars. We are grateful that no one was hurt – we all survived in one piece in spite of losing our home and all our stuff. I believe our deaths will be like that too. Though our bodies will eventually be destroyed, we – our souls – will live on, through God’s gracious preservation. And just as our house was rebuilt, we will receive new bodies – at the resurrection of the dead.

Running With Jesus

When I was a teen I read Malcolm Boyd’s book of prayers, Are You Running With Me Jesus?. Malcolm’s conversations with Jesus, recorded in the 60s, are honest and countercultural. I appreciated his informal way of talking to God. His title question suggests uncertainty; it could also be taken to imply that the run is Malcolm’s rather than Jesus’s (though the prayers suggest otherwise). Today I ask, “Am I running with you, Jesus?” I’m surer now that Jesus is running in this world, and I realize I’m often running in a different direction. But I would rather run with Jesus.

Two Causes of Doubt

Here are two causes of doubts about the Christian faith: (1) Facing questions for the first time and not knowing how to answer them. The remedy is to keep thinking rather than to stop believing. And it's best to think so as to love the truth more than ideas; (2) Letting the critics define the terms of the debate by unconsciously accepting their questionable assumptions. The answer here is to challenge all assumptions – including your own about critical thinking. Questions don’t have to lead to doubt and then to dismissal. And believers don’t have to accept the burden of proof.

Faith and Knowledge

I used to agree with Kant that faith and knowledge are mutually exclusive. He wrote in the Preface to the Critique of Pure Reason, “I had to deny knowledge in order to make room for faith.” But now I think faith is opposed to sight but not to knowledge. Paul says, "we live by faith, not by sight" (II Cor. 5:7). And the author of Hebrews says, “. . . faith is confidence in what we hope for and assurance about what we do not see.” Doesn’t such confidence and assurance suggest knowledge? If so, faith and knowledge are compatible.